Guiding Principles In Writing Technical Papers Text

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The ipcc's work is guided by a set of principles and clear procedures for all the main activities of the organization. This page serves as a repository for all official procedural documents guiding ipcc activities. The ipcc's processes and procedures are constantly being reviewed and updated to ensure that they remain strong, transparent and reliable. For recent changes to ipcc procedures and related information see the review of processes and procedures page that covers all the recent changes to ipcc procedures approved by the panel in the period 2010 2012. The document principles governing ipcc work lays down the role of the ipcc, its organization, participation in it and its key procedures, and establishes comprehensiveness, objectivity, openness and transparency as guiding principles of ipcc work.

All major decisions about the organization and its work are taken by the panel during the plenary sessions. The principles governing ipcc work provide detailed rules and procedures in the following appendices:

ronald e. Hansen

the university of western ontario curriculum development is a local, regional, or state/provincial level process that student teachers often have difficulty comprehending hansen, fliesser, froelich, amp mcclain, 1992 .

Regional advisory committee members or school board writing teams with years of experience in the school system. The expectation of the teacher candidates, often enough, is that they will learn how to teach and thereby become effective at transmitting the knowledge, skills, and attitudes associated with a particular subject or program. Successful practice in the classroom is inextricably linked to curriculum development the everyday decisions about both what to teach and how to teach. Choosing technological education as the unit of analysis in this paper is intentional. Technological education is in the midst of an unprecedented curriculum reform in the schools. New technologies, especially the use of the computer as an instructional tool, have given teachers and learners the opportunity to explore new ways to learn. The syllabus associated with teacher development across all school subject or program areas, but especially with technological education, is tied more directly to school level curriculum development than heretofore realized.

Layton 1993 is particularly effective in articulating the nature of the curriculum reform in schools while paying tribute to technological education. The schools, in layton's opinion, have historically transmitted knowledge without contextualizing it: no subject challenges the historic role of schools as institutions which decontextualize knowledge quite so strongly as does technology. Knowledge which empowers its possessors in realms of practical action, is now being accorded equal status to academic knowledge. Beyond celebrating a pedagogical tradition that has been less than heralded as a model for instruction by school and university leaders, his words signal the need for technology educators to document, enhance, and showcase curriculum development study/practice in their field.

The purpose of this paper is to interpret, distill, and simplify an expansive curriculum literature base so that entry level technology teachers can more readily understand key elements of the curriculum development process. The principles upon which curriculum development practice has evolved date back to the early decades of this century. Bobbitt's 1918 view that schooling, like production processes in factories, could be reduced to an efficient technique was as commonly accepted by educators in that era as mass media is today.

It was not until tyler 1949 introduced a disciplined approach to instruction that the paradigm of curriculum making that had prevailed for half a century changed. Educational psychologists, among others, gained substantial credibility in the 1950s and 1960s as behavioral objectives led the list of principles upon which the instructional process would be designed. Objectives, teaching methods, and measurement were the currency of choice in textbooks about contemporary instruction. The one exception to the emergence of what would now surely be called curriculum theory was voiced by goodlad 1958 who called for a comprehensive and coherent framework for curriculum design. Schwab 1972 supported goodlad's call for a conceptual system to guide curriculum decision making.

He blamed a reliance on theory for creating the unhappy state of curriculum study and practice. Progress, he claimed, would be by piecemeal improvement not by monolithic revolution and would start from a sophisticated understanding of existing practices and their effects. By the end of the 1970s, it was possible to say that curriculum design, if not curriculum theory, was on the threshold of emerging as a field of study.

There has been considerable debate in the education literature barrow, 1984 goodlad, 1984 pratt, 1994 miller amp seller, 1985 about the importance and place of curriculum theory and curriculum design. Barrow provided a useful perspective on the debate: curriculum design is an otiose notion: we don't want curriculum designers in the sense of people adept at telling us formally how curricula should be set out, or laying down an invariant order of steps to be taken in formulating a curriculum. Much of the divergence between designers and between theories of curriculum design is essentially irrelevant, since it boils down to quibbling about how best to start tackling the problem, and how best to make an impact, rather than arguing about what a coherent curriculum proposal should involve. 67 the author's view, as reflected partly in the curriculum principles which follow, is that curriculum is necessarily a complex concept that lends itself awkwardly, with equal challenge and passion, to theory and practice. To best address that complexity, teacher education programs may need to reassess their priorities with respect to the importance and place of curriculum theory.

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Well conceived notions about how curriculum theories guide educational change are, as apple 1990 and goodson 1991 point out, too simplistic. Often what appears on the surface to be a very coherent and rational argument for a curriculum policy direction in schools may never materialize, or if it does, the final result differs from what was envisioned. Whether one adopts goodson's 1991 notion that curriculum theory, to be of use, must begin with studies of schools and teaching, or apple's 1990 view that our ability to illuminate the interdependence and interaction of factors associated with curriculum reform is limited by political and cultural forces deeply embedded in the schools, the end result is the same. Because curriculum and curriculum change are complex, the investigators in the university of western ontario teacher development project considered both curriculum and curriculum development as teacher and school level phenomena that require an eclectic and applied approach. Technological education curriculum ideology in the above context has, until recently, been an ignored subject/program area layton, 1993 . The work of zuga 1993 and herschbach 1992 is particularly helpful in charting the technological education curriculum theory and design terrain. Herschbach contends that conceptual inconsistency has been a characteristic mark of the movement technical/utilitarian or competency based curriculum design variations in technology education p.

In his opinion, the curriculum design pattern academic rationalism, technical/utilitarian, intellectual processes, social reconstruction, or personal relevance that should underlie technology education is open to debate. Competencies, in herschbach's view, need to be defined more broadly than the ability to manipulate tools, use material and apply mechanical processes. Problem solving, critical thinking skills, ordered ways of working these are competencies that can also be identified p. In contrast to herschbach's desire to see technology education develop a process design pattern, zuga 1993 advocates a diversity of theories.

While recognizing the need to modify kliebard's 1992 categories social efficiency, human development, social meliorism to encompass the emergence of a post modern philosophy, zuga argues that technology education programs, for the most part, exemplify the social efficiency paradigm: i believe that our theory needs to diversify. A problem is the positivist notion of one truth, one right way, one theory, one unified profession. Positivist theoretical underpinnings in the social efficiency theory never serve the diverse needs of a diverse population rather, positivist theory attempts to force everything into a homogeneous blend 133. I see no reason for a single curriculum theory underpinning technology education. 62, 63 in the author's opinion, technological education leaders, in canadian schools and universities at least, have never contemplated how one theory might have power over another for explaining program evolution or a need for change. It is only in recent years that universities with a technological teacher education program have begun to examine the role of theory in curriculum development policy and practice. What remains to be seen is how competing and complementary curriculum theories will inform our understanding of this emerging field.

The premises for establishing guiding principles for curriculum development practice in such a context are crucial. First, a conceptual framework within which to plan learning activities and design curriculum may be a more significant element in a teacher's preparation than is currently acknowledged feiman nemser, 1990 . The teacher education literature has not given curriculum design the attention it deserves haughey, 1992 pratt, 1994 sanders, 1990 . Second, aspiring technology teachers should have an opportunity to reflect on their own attitudes and beliefs about learning hansen, 1995 . The understanding gained by having some way to conceptualize personal attitudes and beliefs about learning, according to feiman nemser, is a crucial element in a teacher's development. This is especially so in technological education because of the eclectic nature of the belief systems held by technologists/technicians with business and industry backgrounds or ideological tendencies.

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